MULTILEVEL INHERITANCE USING PARAMETERIZE CONSTRUCTOR

MULTILEVEL INHERITANCE :  IT MEANS  BASE >> DERIEVED1 >> DERIEVED2

* here base features are derieved in derieved 1

*& then derieved1 features (which contain features of base)  are derieved in derieved2

EXAMPLE

public class base {

static int x,y; // here static keyword is used so that x & y value once initialized then it remains static at other places and not become null//

void set1(int a, int b){

x=a;

y=b;

}

void sum1(){

System.out.println("sum1 ="+(x+y));

}

}

public class der1 extends base {

static int z,k;

void set2(int c,int d){

z=c;

k=d;

}

void sum2(){

System.out.println("sum2 ="+(x+y+z+k));    // here x & y are inherited from base

}

}

public class der2 extends der1 {

int u,i;

void set3(int e,int f){

u=e;

i=f;

}

void sum3(){

System.out.println("sum3 ="+(x+y+z+k+u+i)); //here z & k are inherited from der1

}

public static void main(String[] args) {

der2 obj1  = new der2(); //objects of finally at last derieved class should be made 

obj1.set1(10,5);

obj1.sum1();

der2 obj2 = new der2();

obj2.set2(5, 10);

obj2.sum2();

der2 obj3 = new der2();

obj3.set3(10,10);

obj3.sum3();

}

}

OUTPUT :

 sum =15

sum =30

sum =50

MEMORY HEIRARCHY AND ITS NEED

ITS TYPES ARE : 

1. INTERNAL MEMORY :                  (i) Registers : fastest possible access(1 cpu cycle) . Its type is given below

(ii) Cache memory :

Level 1 (L1) Cache

It is also called primary or internal cache. It is built directly into the processor chip. It has small capacity from 8 Km to 128 Kb.

Level 2 (L2) Cache

It is slower than L1 cache. Its storage capacity is more, i-e. From 64 Kb to 16 MB. The current processors contain advanced transfer cache on processor chip that is a type of L2 cache. The common size of this cache is from 512 kb to 8 Mb.

Level 3 (L3) Cache

This cache is separate from processor chip on the motherboard. It exists on the computer that uses L2 advanced transfer cache. It is slower than L1 and L2 cache. The personal computer often has up to 8 MB of L3 cache.

2. MAIN MEMORY : also known as primary storage.RAM

                size : in Gb's     best access speed : 10gb/sec

3.DISK STORAGE : also known as secondary storage.HARD DISK,ETC

                size : in Tb's     best access speed : 600mb/ sec(in case of solid state drive)

4.NEARLINE OR EXPANDABLE STORAGE : PENDRIVE,  EXTERNAL HARD DISK,ETC

           size : depending upon hardware   best access speed : 160mb/sec

5.ONLINE STORAGE : it is not immediately available but it requires some human intervention to bring online.LIKE cloud storage.

why we need different types of memory  ?

1. main motive is to use different devices in best optimized way

2. also to reduce speed mismatch among high & low speed memory.

3.to provide less costly of diff speed memories  combination for customers

4. for different types of hardware support.

NESTED AND INNER CLASSES

NESTED CLASS : CLASS CREATED WITHIN A CLASS

PROGRAM FOR NESTED CLASS

public class outer {

      int x =10;

     

      void fun(){

            inner i1 = new inner();

            i1.display();

      }

     

     

      class inner{

            int y =200;

           

            void display(){

                  System.out.println("x = "+x);

            }

      }

     

      void showy(){

            System.out.println("y ="+y);     // error //

      }

      public static void main(String[] args) {

           

            outer o1 = new outer();

            o1.fun();

           

      }

}

OUTPUT : X=10

BUT Y CAN'T BE ACCESSED AS OUTER CLASS CANNOT ACCESS INNER CLASS DE VARIABLES

ADVANTAGES OF NESTED CLASSES :

1. HERE, INNER CLASS CAN ACCESS ALL MEMBERS OF OUTER CLASS INCLUDING OUTER                                                           CLASS VARIABLES AND METHODS.

2. IT MAKES CODE MORE READABLE

3. IT MAKES CODE MORE MAINTAINABLE

4. CODE OPTIMIZATION : MEANS IT NEED LESS CODE TO WRITE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INNER CLASS AND NESTED CLASS

* NESTED CLASS CAN BE STATIC AS WELL AS NON - STATIC.BUT INNER CLASS IS ALWAYS NON - STATIC

TYPES OF INNER CLASSES:  3 TYPES

1. MEMBER INNER CLASS : CLASS CREATED WITHIN CLASS AND OUTSIDE OUTER CLASS        METHOD.

2.ANNONYMOUS INNER CLASS : CLASS CREATED FOR IMPLEMENTING INTERFACE OR EXTENDING CLASSES

3. LOCAL INNER CLASS : INNER  CLASS CREATED WITHIN  OUTER  CLASS METHOD

LOCAL INNER CLASSES IN JAVA

WHAT IS LOCAL INNER CLASS:         CLASS CREATED WITHIN A METHOD OF CLASS

PROGRAM TO ILLUSTRATE CONCEPT OF LOCAL INNER CLASSES

public class outer {

      int x =100;

     

      void get(){

           

            class inner{

                 

                  void display(){

                        System.out.println("x = "+x);

                  }

            }

            inner i1 = new inner();

            i1.display();

           

           

      }

      public static void main(String[] args) {

           

            outer o1 = new outer();

            o1.get();

      }

}

OUTPUT : x = 100

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It looks like the image given below

DATATYPES IN JAVA

There are two data types available in Java −

• Primitive Data Types
• Reference/Object Data Types

Primitive Data Types

There are eight primitive datatypes supported by Java. Primitive datatypes are predefined by the language and named by a keyword. Let us now look into the eight primitive data types in detail.

byte

·        Byte data type is an 8-bit signed two's complement integer

·        Minimum value is -128

·        Maximum value is 127

·        Default value is 0

·        Byte data type is used to save space in large arrays, mainly in place of integers, since a byte is four times smaller than an integer.

·        Example: byte a = 100, byte b = -50

Short

·        Short data type is a 16-bit signed two's complement integer

·        Minimum value is -32,768

·        Maximum value is 32,767 (inclusive)

·        Short data type can also be used to save memory as byte data type. A short is 2 times smaller than an integer

·        Default value is 0.

·        Example: short s = 10000, short r = -20000

int

·        Int data type is a 32-bit signed two's complement integer.

·        Minimum value is - 2,147,483,648

·        Maximum value is 2,147,483,647(inclusive)

·        Integer is generally used as the default data type for integral values unless there is a concern about memory.

·        The default value is 0

·        Example: int a = 100000, int b = -200000

long

• Long data type is a 64-bit signed two's complement integer
• Minimum value is -9,223,372,036,854,775,808
• Maximum value is 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (inclusive)
• This type is used when a wider range than int is needed
• Default value is 0L
• Example: long a = 100000L, long b = -200000L

float

·        Float data type is a single-precision 32-bit  floating point

·        Float is mainly used to save memory in large arrays of floating point numbers

·        Default value is 0.0f

·        Float data type is never used for precise values such as currency

·        Example: float f1 = 234.5f

double

·        double data type is a double-precision 64-bit  floating point

·        This data type is generally used as the default data type for decimal values, generally the default choice

·        Double data type should never be used for precise values such as currency

·        Default value is 0.0d

·        Example: double d1 = 123.4

boolean

• boolean data type represents one bit of information
• There are only two possible values: true and false
• This data type is used for simple flags that track true/false conditions
• Default value is false
• Example: boolean one = true

char

• char data type is a single 16-bit Unicode character
• Minimum value is '\u0000' (or 0)
• Maximum value is '\uffff' (or 65,535 inclusive)
• Char data type is used to store any character
• Example: char letterA = 'A'

Reference Datatypes

·        Reference variables are created using defined constructors of the classes. They are used to access objects. These variables are declared to be of a specific type that cannot be changed. For example, Employee, Puppy, etc.

·        Class objects and various type of array variables come under reference datatype.

·        Default value of any reference variable is null.

·        A reference variable can be used to refer any object of the declared type or any compatible type.

·        Example: Animal animal = new Animal("giraffe");

Java Literals

A literal is a source code representation of a fixed value. They are represented directly in the code without any computation.

Literals can be assigned to any primitive type variable. For example −

byte a = 68;

char a = 'A'

byte, int, long, and short can be expressed in decimal(base 10), hexadecimal(base 16) or octal(base 8) number systems as well.

Prefix 0 is used to indicate octal, and prefix 0x indicates hexadecimal when using these number systems for literals. For example 

String literals in Java are specified like they are in most other languages by enclosing a sequence of characters between a pair of double quotes.

Java language supports few special escape sequences for String and char literals as well. They are −

Notation	Character represented
\n	Newline
\r	Carriage return
\f	Formfeed
\b	Backspace
\s	Space
\t	tab
\"	Double quote
\'	Single quote
\\	backslash
\ddd	Octal character
\uxxxx	Hexadecimal UNICODE character